Publius Ovidius Naso, known today to modern audiences simply as Ovid, was a poet whose work is essential to the modern study of Ancient texts. Born on March 20, 43 BCE, Ovid’s life and education strongly influenced not only the way in which he wrote, but also the way in which his personality was molded—exhibiting a defiant, light-hearted attitude toward dark subject matter. The tone Ovid creates in his works created controversy among his readers in Ancient Rome. Similarly, readers today are still unsettled by the way in which Ovid addresses serious criminal acts in his art. I intend to look at Ovid’s most popular ancient work, Metamorphoses, with a special focus on the way in which he regarded the issue of forced sexuality and rape. The research presented here reflects the way in which Ovid’s early life, upbringing, education, relationships, and personality contribute to the flippant, jesting, and dismissive attitude Ovid possesses and portrays toward the pitiless and brutal subject of rape. Specifically, the rape scenes that take place between the divine male and female characters in Metamorphoses are the main focus of my research. In an effort to understand Ovid’s unsettling attitudes and unjust morals surrounding the subject, I have outlined a few significant scenes, and with the help of modern literary scholars, I prove that Ovid’s joking, almost playful, manner toward such a hideous act was directly influenced by the way in which Ovid was raised and educated.[1]
Much of the biographical information on Ovid utilized here comes from Arthur Wheeler[2]. Ovid, like many Roman men of letters, was a provincial. He was born at Sulmona, described as being a “genuinely Ovidian periphrasis,” a small town approximately 90 miles east of Rome (Wheeler 2). Ovid was born to an equestrian family that was well-established and considered quite respectable in the rural community. His father was prosperous—something that ultimately ended up both helping and hurting Ovid as an artist. Old family money allowed Ovid’s father to send both him and his elder brother to Rome to study rhetoric under those considered to be the best teachers of the time (Ursus).
Ovid’s formal teachers of rhetoric included Arellius Fuscus and Porcius Latro, who were “ranked among the four leading rhetoricians of the age” (Wheeler 8). Ovid’s rhetorical study was described by Seneca the Elder, who specifically comments on the way in which Ovid’s hyperemotional disposition interfered with his studies. Seneca’s testimony is believed to be regarded with the upmost respect because it “is that of an actual listener,” someone who undoubtedly was an integral part of Ovid’s early education (8).
As a young Roman man, Ovid never fulfilled any sort of Roman military force, which I believe greatly contributed to this overemotional state Seneca the Elder describes (Ursus). The violent nature of battle was believed to have stripped men of the ability to be overemotional (Hopkins). Ovid was not toughened up by the violence of battle and Roman warfare, thus, from the very beginning of his formal education, Ovid utilized his emotions in such a way that hindered both his involvement in the enjoyment of studying rhetoric, as well as the eventual practice of ruthless law and argumentation. Here, we see the first example of Ovid’s personality differing from the expected norm of a young man of his status and heritage. Ovid would continue to prove that he was one to push the boundaries.
After discussing Ovid’s early education, Wheeler discusses a great deal of information about Ovid’s interactions with other prominent Romans during this early formative period. After a tumultuous first few years in formal rhetorical training, Ovid was involved with a well-to-do patron.[3] This patronage was one of the only “traditional” acts of the time that he took part. To compliment his continuing formal rhetorical training, he was under the patronage of Valerius Messalla Corvinus, a historian as well as a prominent orator. “[Messalla Corvinius] had also been Consul, and served under Octavian at the battle of Actium,” and at the time he presided over a circle of poets. Despite the military background Messalla Corvinius possessed, he influenced Ovid in a much different way.
It is said that “Ovid [ultimately] seems to have fallen under the spell of the literary atmosphere furnished by his patron” (Ursus). Appearing in one of his autobiographical accounts, Ovid thoroughly describes the relationship he had with his patron Messalla Corvinus, as well as the patron’s two sons, Messalinus and Cotta Maximus. Messalla Corvinus undeniably impacted Ovid’s attitude toward formal education and Roman conservatism. In his autobiographical passage, Ovid states that Messalla Corvinus, given his affiliation with an Ancient Roman circle of poets, “was the first to give him courage” in following whatever artistic path Ovid chose to pursue (Wheeler 5-6). Ultimately, Messalla Corvinus’s actions of inspiration would end up further pushing the already defiant Ovid toward creating controversy by disobeying traditional Roman educational structure and eventually abandoning what was considered to be an acceptable career.
Messalla Corvinus not only prompted Ovid to be involved in writing poetry, but he especially encouraged Ovid to share his art. At this time, Ovid embraced his defiance by spending the majority of his time dabbling in the written, rather than the spoken, word, contrary to the popular wishes of his father. However, despite the early push to share this gift of poetry by his patron, Ovid’s formal educators, Arellius Fuscus and Porcius Latro, still believed that he possessed whatever characteristics necessary to be a great orator and politician. Both Ovid’s teachers and his father compelled Ovid to continue the study of rhetoric, with the undying hope that he would further his education ultimately ending with a great deal of knowledge of Ancient Roman law (Ursus). For Ovid, the pressure of his family’s dream for him continued to mount as his older brother fulfilled familial wishes and social duty as a practicing lawyer. Despite the encouragement to be a great rhetor, Ovid began to unequivocally neglect his studies[4] (Ursus). It is said that he was often found “wasting” his time writing the poetic verses that he enjoyed and came so naturally to him. Here we see an example of Ovid’s contravening, what was considered to be the norm for a young, well-to-do Roman man, proving that he was somewhat defiant in nature. Yet despite his love of poetry, familial obligation ultimately overcame Ovid as he completed the Grand Tour[5] of upper-class Roman young men.
Leanne Bablitz has published extensive work on Ovid’s obligatory, but ephemeral, political career pursued after the Grand Tour of Europe. After his tour, despite being “pulled in one direction by a love for poetry and in the other by a hopeful father, Ovid took his first tentative steps up the political cursus honorum”[6] (Bablitz 33). Ovid’s first post was in a sort of law enforcement position. He later served as a president of the Centumviral court, where he is believed to have “held to the highest standards of fairness when he acted as a judge” (34). Bablitz goes on to say that Ovid took on a theme of judgment and justice as a judge and member of the court. His personality was described as extremely honorable and fair to those in which he presided over. According to Bablitz’s research, “no other Roman is known to have served as both a centumvir and a unus iudex” during this period (35). “But [ultimately] most equestrians, at least those who had any decent schooling and ambition, put their wealth, educational and social network toward a political or military career, and thus likely held an office that exempted them from service in the courts” (39). Despite this auspicious start in the political sphere, what is ultimately demonstrated here is another example of Ovid’s inconsistency with Ancient Roman ideals and expectations. This love of writing poetry was no secret and would eventually overcome him.
Although Ovid had much success in his political endeavors and multitude of elevated positions, this rigid career was nevertheless short-lived. When Ovid’s father died, he completely abandoned rhetoric, law, and politics in pursuit of his passion for poetry (Ursus). By breaking away from society’s expectations and his father’s wishes of a great law career Ovid labeled himself, perhaps somewhat unintentionally, as a radical. The prevailing idea was that Ovid had no respect for the behaviors and expectations that were considered socially acceptable for the time[7] (Ursus).
More noteworthy research on Ovid’s career decisions and personal life comes from William Anderson. As Ovid’s formal educational training and political successes came to a close, he was first married. Ovid would end up being married three times and would greatly contribute to his ideals and views regarding romance, the theme of nearly all of his poetry. Ovid documented his romantic affairs as being quite troubled which may have contributed to the unstable male/female relationships he most notably wrote about. The only wife he spoke fondly of was the last. Additionally, it was rumored that Ovid had some sort of affair with someone in Augustus’s family—either his daughter or granddaughter.[8] This rumored adultery worked its way into much of Ovid’s work on romance, becoming a topic that ultimately created controversy among readers when later addressed in a rather blithe tone.
Anderson portrays Ovid as continuing to become less and less conservative in his Ancient Romantic views. Meanwhile, the morals and ideals of the aristocracy were slowly changing, but not nearly fast enough to be consistent with those held by Ovid. “This society characterized by much leisure and little austerity gave birth to a poetic tradition…It is thus not surprising that Ovid, poet of love, was particularly in favor,” and the task of meeting these new societal needs encouraged writers to give “free reign to their creative imagination. A new literature was born, adapted to the new social and moral ideals of the aristocracy” (Anderson 62-63). The created situation gave way to the perfect opportunity for Ovid to ultimately focus on his artful poetic work.
Thus, Ovid began the widespread publishing of his work. Ovid’s first notable work, Ars Amatoria,[9] is an instructional series of poems that teaches the basics of male/female relationships. On that note, it’s important to take notice of the role sex played in Ancient Rome. Sexuality was commonplace but not openly discussed (“Household Sex”). Homosexuality was prominent. Recall, that the relationships between patrons and their young male subjects often had some sort of sexual component. In spite of these common circumstances Ovid’s Ars Amatoria proposed a radically new sexual agenda, contributing to his proto-liberalism. Ovid defended this controversial fascination with sex, specifically heterosexual in nature, by taking the stance that it was more enjoyable because pleasure was mutual between lovers and no one person was made to take on the shamed role.[10] Ovid challenged the moral conservatism of the time, and particularly the emperor Augustus, by openly discussing heterosexual sex relations, relationships, adultery, etc. in his early poetry. The Ars Amatoria was a handbook of sorts, teaching men and women the ways of courtship and what was necessary for successful relationships. Aware of the taboo nature of an open sexuality, the tone of this poetry was carefree. The way in which Ovid wrote on the topic was almost as problematic for his early readers as the subject matter itself. Here we see Ovid’s tendency to push the boundaries of society and his fellow Romans.
Six years after completing and publishing Ars Armatoria, Ovid produced his most famous poetic work, Metamorphoses. Metamorphoses would prove to provide more controversy still in regard to its sexually explicit themes. More than just sex, Metamorphoses brought to light the issue of forced sexual acts, rape and sexual assault. The already uncomfortable subject matter became more uncomfortable and troubled ancient readers. Although consensual heterosexual relationships do not bother modern readers, the topic of rape continues to be shrouded in stigmas, disgust and negative connotations. Rape, now a felony crime with a multitude of punishments, has unsettled all readers of all periods. Ancient and modern readers alike have squirmed at the depictions of Ovid’s carefree rape scenes present in Metamorphoses.
First and foremost, the narrators of Metamorphoses contribute to the victimizing tone of the work. “Most of Metamorphoses is narrated by a masculine authorial persona,” states one scholar who has published work on the way in which Ovid belittles women through the overpowering rape that is present throughout (Salzmann-Mitchell 150). The authoritative male figures in Ovid’s early life, including his father, elder brother, and formal educators, pushed Ovid to study rhetoric—a topic that he was uninterested in pursuing as a career. This same overbearing nature is seen in the male characters, especially those possessing immortal qualities, in the opening scene depicted in Metamorphoses.
In the first book of the epic, Apollo mercilessly pursues Daphne. Ovid depicts Daphne’s saddening pleas to her father to let her keep her virginity (Lombardo 1.506-509). Regardless, Apollo pursues the moral and virtuous Daphne, disregarding her pleas for chastity. Ovid uses the word “love” loosely in this story of the two. Apollo claims that he “loves” Daphne, and yet all he wishes to do is take from her the thing she cherishes most of all (1.583-590). Ovid’s depiction of the divine male figure outweighs the female’s plea. But it is the constant appeal to “love”, the lie to get what the virile Apollo craves, that is so disturbing. Apollo appeals to his familial ties and powerful status as justification for stripping Daphne of her virginity, implying that she will enjoy herself if she just gives into him. The reasoning Ovid gives Apollo closely parallels the original argument Ovid made for male/female relationships in Ars Armatoria. It is clear that Ovid firmly believed that rape was not nearly as devastating to the female as she made it out to be because she must have enjoyed herself.
Sarah Brown extensively discusses this prevailing idea that Ovid approached his sexual assault scenes with what she considers to be a sort of “narrative gloss on events” (48). This suggests that Ovid believes that the female victims of his rape scenes “are tainted, or perceived to be tainted, by a suggestion of responsibility or secret pleasure” (49). Brown’s theory allows modern readers to understand the intentional way in which Ovid depicts Apollo as not being guilty or blameworthy for the disgusting act he desires at Daphne’s expense. The underlying implication here is that the brutal attack is Daphne’s own fault because she is a beautiful female (Brown). After this horrifying experience, and somewhat “comically,” Daphne is turned into a tree to escape her attacker. The diction and imagery used to portray this transformation is anything but serious. The way in which Daphne’s body takes on the characteristics of a tree are used to lighten the already playful mood of the rape scene that is not really portrayed much like a rape at all.
Marjorie Garber discusses the influence of Ovid’s works, and more importantly, his attitude toward those works, has influenced scholars and readers, both Ancient and modern, specifically in the metamorphic art seen in these somewhat causal sexual assault scenes. It is important to note that Daphne’s is the first notable transformation of a female victim, “Ovid has often been both a sign and an agent of shape-shifting in critical thought: metamorphic in himself and the cause of metamorphosis in others (Garber 133).[11] Here, Ovid’s inappropriate and playfully frivolous attitude toward rape is seen to continue throughout the poetic work.
As was mentioned earlier, the depiction of the male role in Roman society greatly influenced this attempted rape on Daphne because of the commonality of the masculine persona and associated power. Recall that Roman males were allowed to engage in sexual activities with either gender, of any age, as long as the elder male took on the penetrative role (“Household Sex”). Being in this position allowed the elder male to continue to be respected in the aristocratic society, despite the fact today, modern citizens and readers are very disturbed by such perverse, nonconsensual relationships, regardless of age and/or gender. Although what took place here was a crime, Ovid treated it merely as a benign act because the male still had his integrity.
After Daphne’s unfortunate run-in with Apollo, the rape of Io also appears in the first book of the epic. Similar to Daphne in her depiction as a helpless female, Io attempts to outrun her attacker. Io is severely punished for her bravery and attempt to save herself. Ovid drolly depicts Io swiftly being turned into a heifer for not surrendering to the god’s sexual advances. As the story continues, Ovid unsettlingly depicts Io the heifer attempting to mate with cows. Here we begin to see Ovid’s dark sense of humor. “It is difficult to avoid a touch of absurdity, if not downright comedy, when depicting the victims” in this rape scene (Brown 33).
In the second book, Ovid’s eroticism is once again depicted, this time through the rape of Callisto. Jupiter is portrayed as saying that his wife will never find out about the small deception[12] he is about to take part in. Ovid writes that the god was okay with betraying himself and his wife with a less than innocent act.
[Callisto] did struggle,
As much as a woman can—had you seen it…
But what man can a girl overcome, and who can overcome Jove?
The god returned to the sky, flush with victory.
The girl loathed the woodlands that knew her secret (Lombardo 2.484-490).
Here again we see an example of Ovid belittling the female character. The all-powerful male once again dominates in the sexual relationship, ultimately taking whatever he wants and leaving the female to feel hatred and shame. Ovid briefly mentions that Callisto attempted to fight back against her attacker, but in the two lines she is awarded, he lightheartedly glosses over her struggle.
Metamorphoses continues with scenes of rape and sexual assault, scholar A.W. Eaton brilliantly describes the way in which Ovid depicts the rape of Europa by Jupiter. Even among modern-day readers. This “…rape of Europa is highly praised” by Ovid and the art depicting this rape “has an overlooked dark side, namely that it eroticizes rape. I argue that this is an ethical defect…” (Eaton 159). I agree with Eaton’s previous comments and agree that this is an attempt to “celebrate rape” (159). “When I say that [this] eroticizes rape, I mean not only that it depicts a willing victim for whom this rape is pleasurable, but also that it represents this internally conflicted even in a manner aimed to arouse the [reader’s] sexual desire” (165).
Perhaps the most vivid rape scene depicted in all of Metamorphoses is that of Philomela by Tereus, husband to Procne. Despite the fact that he is married to Procne, Tereus lays eyes on Philomela and impulsively decides that he must have her.
Her beauty was reason enough, but with Tereus
His own libido and the passionate nature
Of men from his region were also factors.
Nature and race both caused him to burn [with desire]. Lombardo 6.524-527).
This quotation from the text depicts the female as being in the wrong because of her beauty. Ovid once again places the majority of the blame on the female character and lightly glosses over the married male’s improper desires, a commentary on the powerful roles males held in Ancient Rome. Philomela had this coming because she was beautiful, and why should Tereus be blamed? As a man, his nature caused him to yearn after women this way. The objectifying nature is portrayed as okay because that is just how men from this particular race and region act. The entire scene is off-putting and incredibly disturbing. Here Ovid takes a good deal of space to tell the reader how a man’s mind is considered to be “pitch-black” (6.541). He refers to Tereus committing a crime[13] and being praised for his sin simply because he is a man (6.540-543). Again, the supreme role of men in Ancient Roman society plays a large part in the shaping of this horribly improper, gender-biased belief system. After the rape, Tereus roars that he has won, as he has captured poor Philomela. “The captive has no chance / To escape, and the raptor sits eyeing his prey” (lines 596-597).[14]
However, the rape of Philomela itself is not enough for Ovid—he must tack on a significant amount of violence. He takes this torture further by having Philomela’s tongue cut off to keep her from revealing what the male has done to her. Keith Hopkins comments on the importance of such violence to Ancient Roman men in his essay entitled “Murderous Games.” “Rome was a warrior state,” and he says, the violence Ovid depicts has always been a sensitive issue. However, like the rape scenes, it is the way in which Ovid portrays this hideous violence that was, and still is, quite disturbing to his readers. Hopkins notes that “in 42 BC, for the first time, gladiatorial fights were substituted for chariot-races in official games.” At this time Ovid would have been just one year old, and it is clear that this is the type of “modern-day” society he would have ultimately have been brought up in.
In conclusion, I have yet to find any scholars that believe that Ovid was serious in his discussions and commentaries on the rapes present in his most notable work, Metamorphoses. Additionally, each scholar I have referenced begins his/her respective essay with some sort of commentary on Ovid’s family, life, marriages, education, patronage, wealth, etc. There is no doubt that Ovid was greatly influenced by the time period and society in which he wrote. His education, by prominent, powerful male Romans, significantly influenced his attitudes toward violent rape and unsettling sexual assaults against most of the female characters depicted.
Although Ovid’s light-heartedness is consistent throughout, there are changes presented in the way in which the female character is transformed and what she is transformed into. Barbara Stirrup discusses specific transformations that occur in the rape scenes. “The essential difference between the stories depends on the application of metamorphosis,” she explicitly states (175). For example, recall the comical transformation of Io into a heifer in an early book. When Neptune rapes Caenis, she begs to be transformed into a man so that she can avoid the tragic experience of sexual assault happening to her once again. Ovid depicts this plea as somewhat comical and insinuates that Caenis’s problems would cease to exist if she held the title of a man.
After examining a number of the specific scenes in which rape and sexual assault appear in Metamorphoses, I believe we should again revisit Leanne Bablitz’s statement about the fair and just way in which Ovid was described during his time spent as a judge. After he had served on a law enforcement panel, the idea of Ovid depicting the heinous crimes in his poetry as not really being crimes at all is both noteworthy and thought-provoking. From early in his life, Ovid displayed a certain rebellious attitude and consistently pushed the boundaries set for him by the society in which he was born into. From the way in which Ovid first disobeyed his society and his father’s wishes by disregarding the political community, to the way in which he chose to follow his dreams of pursuing poetry and art and the radical new sexual agenda, Ovid consistently tested the boundaries that surrounded him. Ultimately, Ovid’s education and upbringing contributed to the way in which he light-heartedly regarded dark subject matter, specifically rape, sexual assault, and the idea of adulterous relationships. The theme of strong masculine, often overpowering, male figures stemmed from the multitude of important male figures in Ovid’s family, early life, and education. The views in which Ancient Roman society held toward men ended up providing the greatest influence on Ovid’s poetic works, especially that of Metamorphoses.
Bibliography
Anderson, William S. Ovid: The Classical Heritage. New York: Garland, 1995. Print.
Bablitz, Leanne. “Judging Ovid.” The Classical Journal 104.1 (2008): 33-42. JSTOR. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
Binns, J. W. Ovid. Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1973. Print.
Brown, Sarah A. Ovid: Myth and Metamorphosis. London: Bristol Classical, 2005. Print.
Eaton, A. W. “Where Ethics and Aesthetics Meet: Titian’s Rape of Europa.” Hypatia 18.4 (2003): 159-88. JSTOR. Web. 31 Mar. 2014.
Garber, Marjorie. “Ovid, Now and Then.” Critical Inquiry 40.1 (2013): 133-59. JSTOR. Web. 31 Mar. 2014.
Hopkins, Keith. “Murderous Games: Gladiatorial Contests in Ancient Rome. “History Today” 33.6 (1983). n. pag. HistoryToday. Web. 17 Apr. 2014.
“Household Sex.” The Illustrated History of the Roman Empire. Web. 1 May 2014. <http://www.roman-empire/society/soc-household.hmtl>
Lombardo—See Ovid.
Ovid. The Essential Metamorphoses. Ed. Stanley Lombardo. Indianapolis: Hackett, 2011. Print.
Rand, Edward K. “Ovid And His Influence.” The Classical Review 40.6 (1926): 208-09. Web. 31 Mar. 2014.
Salzman-Mitchell, Patricia B. A Web of Fantasies. Columbus: Ohio State UP, 2005. Print.
Stirrup, Barbara E. “Techniques of Rape: Variety of Wit in Ovid’s ‘Metamorphoses'” Greece & Rome 24.2 (1977): 170-84. JSTOR. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
Ursus. “Ovid Part I: Life and Times.” UNRV History. UNRV, 2003. Web. 8 Apr. 2014.
Wheeler, Arthur L. “Topics From the Life of Ovid.” American Journal of Philology (1928): 1-28. L’Annee Philologique. Web. 30 Mar. 2014.
[1] Note that Ovid describes his own life and significant events in his autobiographical poem Tristia, which in English literally translates to “sorrows.” The idea of sorrow is important to keep in mind as Ovid constructs views on the particularly disturbing crime of rape.
[2] Edward Rand also extensively discusses Ovid’s biography in his essay “Ovid and His Influence.”
[3] Ancient Roman patronage relationships often considered a sexual component, constituting an entirely different and more persuasive dynamic. I have not found any research that confirms decisively whether or not Ovid was sexually involved with Messalla Corvinus, but given the extreme power the man held over Ovid’s thoughts and actions, it is entirely possible.
[4] After being set on this poetic path by his patron, Ovid so blatantly disregarded what was expected of him. We can see that Ovid enjoyed pushing boundaries and testing those around him from the beginning. This attitude proves to create a good deal of controversy when Ovid begins publishing his poetry.
[5] A trip through France and Italy that focused on art, culture, etc. This was a privilege given only to young, wealthy male scholars of the time.
[6] In English, literally meaning “course of offices” that aspiring politicians were required to hold in sequential order in Ancient Rome.
[7] Moral conservatism falls into this category.
[8] The adulterous affair is thought to have led to Ovid’s eventual exile by the emperor Augustus.
[9] In English, “The Art of Love”.
[10] The male in a homosexual relationship that took the penetrative role was not judged. However, the other male was often a slave, young boy, etc. He was someone who was considered to be powerless or unimportant to the relationship, and often viewed as not being able to enjoy the experience.
[11] Fun fact: Marjorie Garber’s essay on Ovid has a section about various companies that have been named after him. One software company CEO decided to change his company’s name to Ovid Software because he believed that his company had undergone a “metamorphosis”.
[12] By “small deception”, Ovid is referencing the huge issue of adultery. Here we see how lightly Ovid played on this controversial issue.
[13] Or two—rape and adultery.
[14] It is important to note that Ovid uses 24 lines to describe 21 rapes in this very book of Metamorphoses. The brutality of the attacks and the “comic” struggles are well represented in Book VI.
UT English Lit Major 
Congratulations, well written and clear thesis stated and proved. Excellent Notes